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UNIVERSITY   OF   ILLINOIS 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN    NO.  92. 


CITY    MILK   SUPPLY. 


BY  WILBER  J.  FRASER. 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS,  DECEMBER,  1903. 


SUMMARY  OF  BULLETIN  No.  92. 

INTRODUCTION. — Owing  to  the  many  evils  resulting  from  the  use  of 
impure  milk,  the  public  has  recently  taken  special  interest  in  the  subject 
of  city  milk  supply,  and  because  of  this  interest  Bulletins  91  and  92  are 
published  at  this  time.  Page  253. 

THE  CONSUMER'S  INTERESTS. — The  consumer  is  interested  in  having 
milk  of  a  known  composition,  free  from  germs,  clean,  of  good  flavor, 
thoroughly  cooled,  and  held  at  a  low  temperature.  Page  255. 

CARE  OF  THE  YARD. — A  yard  sloping  from  the  barn  and  covered  with 
gravel  or  cinders  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of  clean  milk. 

Page  255. 

THE  STABLE. — This  building  need  not  be  of  costly  construction,  but 
it  should  be  arranged  with  a  view  to  cleanliness  and  the  comfort  of  the 
cows.  Page  255. 

LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION. — An  abundance  of  light  and  fresh  air  is 
necessary  to  the  economic  production  of  wholesome  milk.  Page  258. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  WHITEWASH. — Whitewashing  the  stable  at  least  once 
a  year  will  aid  greatly  in  keeping  it  in  a  sanitary  condition.  Page  258. 

CLEANLINESS  IN  MILKING. — Milk,  as  ordinarily  produced,  gets  the 
greatest  amount  of  contamination  from  the  udders.  Washing  them 
before  milking  will  do  much  to  prevent  this.  Page  259. 

CARE  OF  MILK. — Cooling  milk  to  50°  F.  or  below  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn 
checks  the  action  of  bacteria,  thus  adding  to  the  keeping  quality  of  the 
milk.  Bottling  milk  at  the  dairy  prevents  contamination  during  delivery 
and  subsequently.  Page  259. 

CARE  OF  DAIRY  UTENSILS. — Thoroughly  washing  and  sterilizing  dairy 
utensils  after  each  using  adds  to  the  safety  and  keeping  quality  of  milk. 

Page  262. 

STANDARD  MILK. — Milk  having  a  certain  known  composition,  and 
sold  on  the  basis  of  its  food  value,  is  known  as  "  standard  "  milk.  Page  263. 

STANDARDIZING  MILK  AND  CREAM. — This  process  consists  in  adding 
or  removing  an  amount  of  butter  fat  necessary  to  bring  the  percent  to 
the  desired  standard.  Page  263. 

CERTIFIED  MILK. — Standard  milk  produced  under  sanitary  conditions 
certified  to  by  the  producer  is  called  "  certified  "  milk.  Page  267. 

CONSUMER'S  RESPONSIBILITY. — Keeping  milk  cool  and  protecting  it 
from  dust  and  odors  after  delivery  is  of  as  great  importance  as  its  proper 
production.  Page  270. 

IMPROVING  CONDITIONS. — By  adopting  as  many  sanitary  methods  as 
possible,  and  gradually  increasing  them,  a  steady  progress  will  be  made. 

Page  270. 

NEED  OF  INSPECTION. — Judicious  inspection  would  be  of  untold 
advantage  to  the  consumer  and  of  decided  benefit  to  the  better  class  of 
dairymen,  and  they  should  at  once  take  active  steps  to  have  such  a 
system  instituted.  Page  272. 


CITY    MILK    SUPPLY. 

BY  WILDER  J.  FRASER,  CHIEF  IN  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  statements  made  in  this  bulletin  are  the  result  of  seven  years' 
experience  in  conducting  a  sanitary  dairy  at  the  University  of  Illinois, 
where  the  milk  is  bottled  and  delivered  for  direct  consumption.  They 
are  also  the  result  of  investigations  in  the  contamination  of  milk  reported 
in  Bulletin  No.  91.  Both  of  these  bulletins  and  Circular  No.  73  are 
published  at  the  present  time  because  of  the  recent  interest  manifested 
by  the  public  in  city  milk  supply. 

The  methods  commonly  employed  in  the  production  of  milk  are  so 
faulty,  and  the  evils  resulting  from  the  use  of  impure  milk  so  numerous 
and  of  such  a  serious  nature,  that  every  one  interested  in  the  public  wel- 
fare should  be  anxious  to  bring  about  an  improvement.  In  many  cities 
and  towns  of  the  State,  muc'h  attention  is  paid  to  the  water  supply,  and 
large  sums  of  money  are  expended  in  obtaining  good  and  pure  water; 
yet  in  most  cities  no  attention  is  given  to  the  quality  of  milk 
furnished,  which  to  many,  especially  the  children,  is  of  even  greater 
moment  than  the  water  supply.  In  but  few  cities  of  the  State  is  it 
possible  to  get  a  regular  supply  of  milk  that  has  been  produced  under 
really  clean  conditions,  thoroughly  cooled  and  bottled  in  a  proper  manner, 
and  which  parents  feel  sure  is  safe  for  infant  feeding.  Among  the  reasons 
why  a  reform  should  be  instituted  are  the  following : 

No  other  article  of  food  is  so  generally  used  by  all  classes  of  people. 

About  one-third  of  all  the  milk  produced  by  the  17,000,000  cows  in 
the  United  States  is  sold  for  direct  consumption,  and  much  of  it  is  con- 
sumed in  its  raw  state. 

No  other  food  is  more  healthful  and  economical  than  milk  when  pure, 
and  none  is  more  dangerous  to  health  when  carelessly  handled. 

Milk  being  an  opaque  liquid,  its  quality  and  cleanly  condition  cannot 
be  easily  detected  by  its  appearance. 

Many  infants  and  invalids  subsist  almost,  if  not  entirely,  upon  milk, 
and  it  is  of  vital  importance  that  milk  for  such  persons  be  as  pure  and 
free  from  bacteria  as  possible. 

Milk  is  an  ideal  medium  for  the  growth  of  germs;  because  of  this  fact 
it  is  especially  important  that  it  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care  so 
that  no  disease  germs  may  be  allowed  to  gain  access  to  it. 

Since  the  invention  of  the  Babcock  test  and  the  cream  separator, 
dairymen  can  easily  standardize  the  milk  and  cream  they  sell,  and 
should  be  required  to  do  so. 

253 


254  BULLETIN  No.  92.  [December, 

To  secure  desired  results  care  must  be  exercised  at  every  step  of  milk 
production  and  delivery.  There  is  little  use  in  observing  all  but  one  of 
the  precautions  here  suggested  for  the  production  of  high  grade  milk,  as 
this  one  neglect  spoils  the  whole. 

Even  by  exercising  the  greatest  care  in  the  production  of  milk,  it 
cannot  be  secured  in  a  commercial  way  from  the  cow,  germ  free.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  it  must  be  protected  from  further  contamination  and 
kept  at  a  low  temperature  during  delivery  and  subsequently,  or  the 
bacterial  content  will  soon  be  enormous. 

The  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  induce  dairymen  to  use  more 
sanitary  methods  in  handling  their  milk  have  often  resulted  in  failure. 
One  important  reason  for  this  is  not  hard  to  find,  for  milk  cannot  be 
produced  under  sanitary  conditions  as  cheaply  as  in  the  common  slovenly 
manner,  and  when  the  price  of  the  product  is  raised,  the  consumer,  not 
appreciating  the  added  value  to  himself,  often  objects  to  paying  the 
advanced  price.  This  naturally  discourages  further  efforts  toward 
improved  methods  in  production.  When  consumers  insist  on  having 
milk  of  known  quality  and. purity,  and  are  willing  to  pay  a  slightly 
advanced  price  for  it,  such  milk  will  be  supplied. 

If  its  true  food  value  were  more  fully  appreciated,  milk  would  be 
used  much  more  freely  than  it  now  is,  to  the  advantage  of  both  the  health 
and  economical  sustenance  of  the  people.  A  quart  of  three  percent  milk, 
costing  five  cents,  will  furnish  about  the  same  amount  of  nutrition  as 
three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  meat,  costing  nine  cents;  yet  people  invariably 
consider  milk  something  of  a  luxury,  and  think  they  are  economizing  by 
restricting  its  use  as  much  as  possible,  although  they  buy  meat  freely, 
considering  it  one  of  the  necessities  of  life.  Few  people  realize  that  the 
elements  needed  to  nourish  the  body  may  be  obtained  from  milk  more 
cheaply  than  from  meat,  and  that  milk  takes  the  place  of  other  foods, 
thus  diminishing  the  quantity  of  other  food  needed. 

The  public  has  long  been  defrauded  by  dishonest  and  unscrupulous 
milk  dealers,  and  has  suffered  from  the  slovenly  methods  of  the  careless 
dairyman.  The  honest  dealers  who  furnish  clean  milk  have  been  and 
are  still  having  a  hard  fight  with  dishonest  competition  and  the  indiffer- 
ence of  the  public.  The  most  effective  remedy  for  this  difficulty  is  for 
the  public  to  patronize  those  only  who  furnish  a  good  grade  of  milk,  and 
arc  willing  to  guarantee  it. 

It  is  the  aim  of  this  bulletin  to  bring  the  consumers  and  the  better 
class  of  dairymen  together;  to  show  both  the  importance  of  handling 
milk  in  a  cleanly,  sanitary  manner;  also  to  present  to  dairymen  improved 
methods  of  handling  milk  and  delivering  it  to  the  vast  number  of  people 
living  in  our  cities.  There  is  yet  much  to  be  learned  along  this  line,  but 
certain  facts  are  well  established,  and  it  is  of  these  that  this  bulletin  is  to 
treat. 


1903.]  CITY  MILK  SUPPLY.  255 


THE  CONSUMER'S  INTERESTS. 

The  consumer  is  especially  interested  in  five  things  in  connection  with 
his  milk  supply,  and  for  these  the  producer  should  be  responsible : 

First,  that  the  milk  be  clean. 

Second,  that  the  milk  keep  at  least  twenty-four  hours  after  being 
delivered  to  the  consumer,  if  held  at  a  temperature  of  60°  or  below. 

Third,  that  the  flavor  of  the  milk  be  not  injured  by  improper  feeding, 
careless  methods  in  handling,  or  by  the  development  of  certain  species 
of  bacteria  which  cause  bad  flavors. 

Fourth,  that  the  milk  be  not  injurious  to  health;  that  it  contain  no 
disease-producing  germs  or  any  form  of  preservative. 

Fifth,  that  the  milk  have  a  certain  known  composition  which  is 
uniform  from  day  to  day. 

The  consumer  has  a  right  to  demand  that  milk  furnished  him  meets 
the  above  requirements,  and  unless  it  does,  he  should  refuse  to  take  it. 

In  order  that  milk  may  conform  to  the  above  requirements,  the  fol- 
lowing suggestions  as  to  the  care  of  the  barn,  cows,  dairy,  utensils,  etc., 
must  be  carried  out. 

CARE  OF  THE  YARD. 

In  the  production  of  clean  milk  no  one  thing  is  of  more  importance 
than  keeping  the  cows  out  of  the  mud  and  filth  of  a  dirty  barnyard. 
The  yard  should  be  graded  to  slope  gently  from  the  barn,  and  should  be 
covered  with  gravel  or  cinders  sufficiently  deep  to  form  a  hard  surface. 
In  this  way  the  cows  will  be  kept  out  of  the  mud,  thus  preventing  their 
bellies  and  udders  from  becoming  soiled. 

It  is  advisable  to  haul  the  manure  directly  to  the  field  from  the  barn, 
but  if  this  is  not  feasible  it  should  be  removed  at  least  one  hundred  feet 
from  the  barn.  In  no  case  should  it  be  allowed  to  accumulate  against 
or  near  the  dairy  barn,  and  no  swine  pen  should  be  nearer  than  two  hun- 
dred feet,  since  the  odors  are  readily  absorbed  by  milk. 

BARNS  AND  STABLES. 

Costly  barns  or  stables  are  not  essential  to  the  production  of  clean 
milk  or  to  the  maintenance  of  a  dairy  herd  at  its  highest  efficiency.  To 
obtain  the  best  results,  it  is  important,  however,  that  the  cows  be  kept 
comfortable  at  all  times.  To  do  this  there  are  several  essentials  with 
which  a  barn  must  be  provided.  It  must  have  a  roof  that  does  not  leak, 
sides  that  do  not  allow  the  wind  to  blow  through,  and  doors  that  will 
close  tightly. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  keeping  cows  clean  that  the  plat- 
form on  which  they  stand  be  of  the  proper  length.  If  it  is  too  short,  the 
cows  cannot  lie  down  comfortably,  and  if  too  long,  the  droppings  will  fall 


256 


BULLKTIN    No.  OJ. 


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I 

(H 

a 
a 
a 

I 


1903.] 


CITY  MILK  SUPPLY. 


257 


o 

o 


258  BULLETIN  No.  92.  [December, 

on  the  rear  of  the  platform  and  the  cows  will  become  soiled  when  lying 
down.  As  cows  vary  in  length,  the  platform  should  be  longer  from  the 
manger  to  the  gutter,  at  one  end  of  the  barn,  and  gradually  taper  to  six 
or  eight  inches  shorter  at  the  other  end.  When  large  herds  are  kept,  the 
platform  on  one  side  of  the  barn  may  be  longer  than  on  the  other  side, 
and  the  cows  arranged  accordingly.  A  still  better  arrangement  is  some 
form  of  movable  manger  so  that  the  length  of  the  platform  can  be 
adjusted  to  suit  each  individual  cow.  With  this  arrangement  all  can  be 
lined  up  on  the  gutter,  which  will  be  a  great  help  in  keeping  the  cows 
clean. 

LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION. 

Two  things  almost  universally  lacking,  or  at  least  inadequately  sup- 
plied in  dairy  barns,  are  light  and  pure  air.  These  are  easily  obtained, 
and  although  absolutely  essential  to  the  best  health  of  the  herd  and  the 
economic  production  of  clean  milk,  they  are  rarely  appreciated.  There 
should  be  from  three-fourths  to  one  and  one-half  square  feet  of  glass  for 
every  linear  foot  of  outside  wall  in  a  dairy  barn. 

Many  barns  are  not  provided  with  any  system  of  ventilation  what- 
.  ever,  as  but  few  dairymen  realize  that  pure  air  is  just  as  essential  to  the 
economic  production  of  untainted  milk  as  is  the  feed  a  cow  consumes. 
Digestion  and  assimilation,  like  the  burning  of  coal  in  a  stove,  are  pro- 
cesses of  combustion.  The  stove  may  be  filled  with  coal,  but  if  the 
drafts  are  kept  tightly  closed,  the  coal  will  not  burn,  as  sufficient  oxygen 
is  not  provided.  Neither  can  a  cow's  feed  be  properly  digested  and 
assimilated  without  an  abundance  of  oxygen,  and  unless  this  is  supplied, 
a  great  waste  of  food,  as  well  as  impaired  health  of  the  cow,  will  result. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  space  that 
should  be  allowed  for  a  cow,  but  this  is  of  little  consequence  in  comparison 
with  the  more  important  question  of  ventilation,  or  change  of  air.  In 
order  not  to  get  a  greater  degree  of  impurity  in  the  air  than  is  permissible 
with  good  results,  each  cow  should  be  supplied  with  3,540  cubic  feet  of 
air  an  hour.  The  size  of  the  ventilating  flues-  to  be  provided  will 
depend  upon  the  number  of  cows  in  the  stable.  About  two  feet  square 
is  a  good  size,  and  if  so  constructed  as  to  cause  the  air  to  move  three 
hundred  feet  a  minute,  this  will  furnish  ventilation  for  twenty  cows. 
Two  flues  this  size  would  be  sufficient  for  forty  cows,  and  five  would  be 
required  for  one  hundred  cows. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  WHITEWASH. 

To  be  sanitary  a  dairy  barn  should  be  whitewashed  at  least  once  a 
year.  An  interior  like  the  one  shown  in  cut  3,  with  a  few  boards  laid 
overhead  at  irregular  intervals,  with  hay  hanging  through,  and  with  the 
sides  and  ceiling  in  no  better  condition,  cannot  be  properly  whitewashed. 
The  ceiling  should  be  tight,  excluding  all  dust  and  chaff  from  above,  and 


1903.]  CITY  MILK  SUPPLY.  259 

the  sides  should  be  smooth,  thus  affording  a  firm  surface  to  which  the 
whitewash  can  cling. 

Whitewash  is  one  of  the  cheapest  disinfectants,  and  can  be  easily  and 
rapidly  applied  with  a  spray  pump.  It  must  be  carefully  strained 
before  using  in  the  pump,  as  any  lumps  will  clog  the  spray  nozzle. 

CLEANLINESS  IN  MILKING. 

In  the  production  of  milk  for  direct  consumption,  it  is  imperative 
that  the  udders  be  clean  before  milking,  as  it  is  from  soiled  udders  that 
milk  as  ordinarily  produced  gets  the  greatest  amount  of  contamination. 

In  Table  7,  Bulletin  91,  is  given  the  weight  of  dirt  which  fell  from 
washed  and  unwashed  udders  during  milking.  From  this  it  is  seen  that 
.with  udders  that  were  apparently  clean,  an  average  of  three  and  one- 
half  times  as  much  dirt  fell  from  the  unwashed  udders  as  from  the  same 
udders  after  they  were  washed.  With  soiled  udders  the  average  was 
eighteen,  and  with  muddy  udders  the  average  was  ninety  times  as  much 
dirt  from  the  unwashed  as  from  the  same  udders  after  washing. 

These  averages  clearly  show  that  all  udders  must  be  washed  before 
milking  if  high-grade  milk  of  good  keeping  quality  is  to  be  produced. 

THE  CARE  OF  MILK. 

As  soon  as  it  is  drawn  milk  should  be  removed  from  the  stable  to  a 
place  provided  for  the  purpose,  and  there  aerated  and  cooled  to  50°  F., 
or  below  if  possible.  This  should  be  done  either  by  setting  the  cans  into 
a  tank  of  cold  water,  and  stirring  occasionally,  or  by  passing  the  milk 
over  a  cooler.  The  latter  method  is  to  be  preferred  if  the  cooling  can  be 
done  in  a  pure  atmosphere  free  from  dust.  It  is  of  great  importance  to 
have  a  small  milk-house,  or  some  clean  room  away  from  the  odors  of  the 
stable,  in  which  to  care  for  the  milk. 

The  sooner  milk  is  thoroughly  cooled  after  it  is  drawn,  and  the  lower 
the  temperature  to  which  it  is  brought,  the  better.  Bacteria  that  get 
into  milk  during  the  process  of  milking  develop  very  rapidly  as  long  as 
milk  remains  at  about  the  temperature  at  which  it  was  drawn,  but  as 
soon  as  cooled  to  60°,  they  develop  slowly,  and  if  cooled  to  40°  their 
growth  is  almost  entirely  stopped.  Milk  cooled  to  this  temperature  as 
soon  as  drawn,  and  held  there,  will  remain  sweet  and  in  good  condition 
much  longer  than  if  cooled  to  only  70°  or  75°. 

Dairymen  who  deliver  milk  in  cans,  measuring  out  the  amount 
wanted  at  each  door,  sell  with  the  milk  the  dust  and  germs  that  collect 
in  the  measures  as  they  drive  along  the  street.  To  prevent  contami- 
nation during  delivery  and  subsequently,  all  milk  must  be  bottled  in  the 
dairy.  Some  dairymen  bottle  milk  in  the  wagon  on  the  route,  using 
bottles  collected  from  houses  just  visited.  This  dangerous  practice  can- 
not be  too  strongly  condemned,  and  should  be  prohibited  by  law.  If 


260 


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BULLETIN  No.  92. 


[December, 


the  bottles  are  not  taken  to  the  dairy  and  washed  and  sterilized  before 
being  filled,  milk  delivered  in  bulk  is  safer,  although  possibly  not  so  clean. 

CARE  OF  DAIRY  UTENSILS. 

One  of  the  first  essentials  in  keeping  dairy  utensils  clean  is  to  have 
vessels  with  smooth  surfaces.  This  fact  should  be  kept  in  mind  when 
purchasing,  and  if  all  seams  are  not  flushed  smooth  with  solder,  this 
should  be  done.  All  utensils  should  be  of  tin,  and  as  soon  as  the  tin  is 
worn  off  on  the  inside,  they  should  be  discarded,  for  they  cannot  be 


CUT  5. — BOTTLED  MILK  HELD  IN  ICE-WATER  IN  REFRIGERATOR  UNTIL  DELIVERED. 

properly  cleaned  when  in  this  condition.  All  utensils  should  be  washed 
as  soon  as  possible  after  using,  since  the  longer  the  milk  remains  on  them, 
the  harder  they  will  be  to  clean.  They  should  first  be  rinsed  with  luke- 
warm water  to  remove  the  milk,  then  washed  with  hot  water  and  soap, 
or  some  alkali,  and  scalded  with  boiling  water,  or  with  steam  if  it  is 
available.  Cans  should  never  be  tightly  closed  when  not  in  use,  and 
should  be  placed  on  a  rack  in  an  inverted  position  so  that  the  dust  can- 
not blow  into  them.  If  possible,  they  should  be  placed  where  the  sun 
will  shine  on  them,  as  that  will  do  much  toward  keeping  them  pure  and 
sweet. 

Bottles  used  to  deliver  milk  for  direct  consumption  must  be  taken  to 
the  dairy  after  each  using  and  thoroughly  washed  and  sterilized  to  kill 
all  disease  germs.  If  this  is  not  done,  disease  may  be  carried  from  one 
house  to  another  by  means  of  the  bottles. 


1903.]  CITY  MILK  SUPPLY.  263 


STANDARD  MILK. 

By  standard  milk  and  cream  is  meant  that  which  has  a  certain  known 
composition,  thus  establishing  a  true  basis  for  valuation. 

Let  it  be  clearly  understood  by  producers,  consumers,  city  councils,  and 
everybody  that  in  these  days  the  dealer  can  furnish  the  customer  with 
milk  of  any  desired  richness,  without  regard  to  the  quality  ordinarily 
yielded  by  the  cow,  and  all  milk  should  be  either  so  standardized  or  else 
bought  and  sold  according  to  its  natural  composition. 

Selling  milk  by  measure  alone  is  unjust  to  the  producer  as  well  as  to 
the  consumer.  While  the  fallacy  of  the  system  is  apparent  to  a  few,  the 
majority  of  people  seem  to  think  that  milk  is  milk,  and  that  one  quart 
is  worth  as  much  as  another,  so  long  as  it  is  still  sweet.  The  reason  for 
this  is  partly  a  lack  of  knowledge  as  to  what  constitutes  good  milk,  and 
partly  because  milk  is  an  opaque  liquid,  and  it  is  difficult  to  judge  of  its 
composition  or  food  value  simply  by  appearance.  For  this  reason,  many 
unscrupulous  milk  dealers  dilute  their  milk  with  water  or  remove  a  por- 
tion of  the  cream. 

State  legislatures  and  city  councils  have  attempted  to  overcome  this 
difficulty  by  passing  laws  and  ordinances  making  it  unlawful  to  change 
the  composition  of  milk.  Where  these  laws  were  enforced,  they  stopped 
the  dilution  of  milk  to  a  great  extent,  but  did  not  tend  to  compel  milk 
dealers  to  sell  milk  of  any  known  composition  or  on  the  basis  of  its  food 
value. 

The  next  attempt  to  remedy  the  difficulty  was  to  fix  a  certain  standard, 
below  which  it  was  unlawful  to  sell  milk.  Most  of  the  states  and  some 
cities  passed  laws  to  this  effect.  These  standards  seldom  require  more 
than  three  percent  fat  and  twelve  percent  total  solids.  The  city  or 
state  standards,  even  where  they  exist,  have  not  reached  the  difficulty, 
as  they  make  the  sale  of  milk  coming  direct  from  some  individual  cows 
that  give  milk  low  in  fat,  unlawful,  while  it  is  good,  wholesome  milk,  and 
a  perfectly  legitimate  product  when  sold  at  its  proper  price.  But  what 
is  even  worse,  this  system  hinders  the  man  who  produces  rich  milk  from 
getting  the  price  he  should  according  to  its  food  value  and  cost  of  pro- 
duction. Milk  containing  a  high  percent  of  fat  is  not  only  worth  more 
for  food,  but  costs  more  to  produce  than  milk  containing  a  low  percent 
of  fat.  and  the  price  should  be  governed  by  its  composition  and  food 
value  and  not  by  its  bulk. 

STANDARDIZING  MILK  AND  CREAM. 

Since  fat  in  milk  is  the  most  variable  constituent,  the  other  solids 
remaining  fairly  constant,  standardizing  milk  is  a  comparatively  simple 
matter.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  add  or  remove  a  certain  amount  of 
butter  fat,  which  is  easily  done  by  means  of  the  centrifugal  separator, 


264 


•BULLETIN  No.  92. 


[December, 


1903.] 


CITY  MILK  SUPPLY. 


265 


266  BULLETIN  No.  92.  [December, 

or  by  letting  the  cream  rise  by  gravity.  While  it  is  true  that  milk  from 
individual  cows  varies  somewhat  from  day  to  day,  the  mixed  milk  of  a 
herd  that  is  milked  at  regular  times  each  day  will  be  practically  constant 
for  that  herd,  because  all  of  the  cows  will  not  test  high  or  low  on  the  same 
day.  By  testing  the  milk  of  a  herd  occasionally,  the  percent  of  fat  in 
the  milk  may  be  known  at  all  times  with  reasonable  accuracy,  together 
with  the  amount  of  butter  fat  that  should  be  added  or  removed  to  bring 
it  to  the  proper  standard.  If  the  separator  does  good  work,  and  the 
amount  of  milk  handled  is  small,  so  that  it  does  not  warrant  testing  every 
day,  it  may  be  run  very  close  to  the  desired  percent  of  fat  by  testing  once 
a  week,  so  as  to  be  sure  that  it  is  up  to  the  required  standard.  Where 
the  quantity  of  milk  handled  is  large,  it  is  more  economical  to  run  tests 
frequently,  and  keep  the  fat  at  exactly  the  desired  percent.  Even  if  the 
percent  of  fat  varies  but  slightly,  it  makes  a  great  difference  in  profit  in 
the  course  of.the  year  in  a  large  business.  If  1,000  gallons  of  milk  are 
sold  daily  at  the  price  given  in  Table  1,  and  the  percent  of  fat  in  the  milk 
is  4.5,  when  only  4  percent  milk  is  required,  the  loss  to  the  one  selling  the 
milk  is  1£  cents  a  gallon,  or  $15  a  day;  this  in  a  year  would  amount  to 
$5,475. 

The  only  apparatus  necessary  to  standardize  milk  is  a  cream  separator 
and  a  Babcock  milk  test.  Surely  no  dairyman  who  has  a  business  of  any 
consequence  can  afford  to  be  without  these  machines.  For  dairymen 
handling  but  a  small  amount  of  milk,  the  same  results  may  be  accom- 
plished by  setting  the  milk  for  a  time,  and  skimming  off  the  cream. 
In  this  case  all  that  is  necessary  is  a  Babcock  test,  which  may  be  obtained 
from  any  milk  supply  house  for  four  dollars.  In  this  work,  skim  milk 
containing  practically  no  fat  must  be  added  or  removed.  If  the  skim 
milk  used  contains  fat,  proper  allowance  must  be  made  according  to  the 
amount  of  fat  contained,  or  the  results  will  obviously  be  different. 
Water  cannot  be  used  to  dilute  the  milk  or  the  percent  of  solids  not  fat 
will  be  reduced. 

As  the  percent  of  albuminoids,  milk  sugar,  and  mineral  matter  are 
practically  the  same  in  milk  containing  different  amounts  of  butter  fat> 
these  are  not  considered  in  the  following  table.  From  this  table  it  will 
be  seen  that  if  all  milk  were  standardized,  and  sold  according  to  these 
prices,  dairymen  would  then  receive  the  legitimate  price  for  their  product 
according  to  its  food  value  and  cost  of  production,  and  would  not  be 
selling  six  percent  milk  in  competition  with  three  percent  milk  and  for 
the  same  price  a  quart.  Such  a  method  would  result  in  justice  to  both 
producer  and  consumer. 


1903.] 


CITY  MILK  SUPPLY. 


267 


TABLE  1. — RELATIVE  VALUE  A  QUART  AND  NUMBER  OF  QUARTS  IN  A  DOLLAR'S 
WORTH  OP  MILK  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  COMPOSITION  AS  TO  FAT,  COMPUTED 
ACCORDING  TO  THE  FOOD  VALUE  OF  3  PERCENT  MILK  AT  5 
CENTS  A  QUART. 


Percent  of  fat  '    

0.1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Price  a  quart,  cents       

2  8 

3.5 

4.2 

5.0 

5.7 

6.5 

7  2 

Number  of  quarts  a  dollar  .  .  . 

35.7 

28.6 

23.8 

20.0 

17.5 

15.4 

13.9 

CERTIFIED  MILK. 

The  grade  of  milk  known  as  "  certified  "  is  nothing  more  than  milk  of 
a  known  composition,  as  clean  and  free  from  bacteria  as  science  and 
skill  can  make  it,  and  produced  by  an  inspected  herd. 

Even  in  the  production  of  this  grade  of  milk,  costly  buildings  are  not 
necessary,  but  they  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  easily  cleaned, 
and  must  be  kept  in  perfect  condition.  The  stable  must  be  cleaned 
frequently,  at  least  twice  a  day,  when  the  cows  are  indoors,  and  all 
feeding  of  dry  fodder,  bedding,  and  sweeping  must  be  completed  not  less 
than  fifteen  minutes  before  beginning  to  milk,  thus  allowing  time  for 
the  dust  to  settle.  Before  milking  all  udders  must  be  washed,  whether 
they  appear  soiled  or  not,  and  the  milkers  must  wash  their  hands  and 
put  on  clean  suits  of  some  washable  material.  As  soon  as  drawn,  the 
milk  must  be  removed  from  the  stable  to  a  sanitary  dairy,  where  it  is 
cooled  to  50°  F.  or  below,  standardized,  and  bottled.  The  bottles  and 
all  other  utensils  with  which  the  milk  comes  in  contact  must  be  thor- 
oughly washed  and  sterilized  after  each  using. 

When  milk  is  produced  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  described  in  this 
bulletin,  a  public  statement  should  be  made  certifying  to  the  methods 
of  production  and  the  percent  of  fat  contained.  Such  milk  finds  a 
ready  market  at  an  advanced  price  when  its  true  value  is  under- 
stood. 

The  easiest  and  most  effective  way  of  letting  the  patrons  know  the 
advantages  of  high  grade  milk,  and  the  methods  used  in  its  production, 
is  by  means  of  an  illustrated  circular.  This  circular  should  show  views 
in  the  dairy  barn  and  dairy,  describe  how  the  herd  is  kept,  and  the  milk 
produced  and  prepared  for  the  trade.  It  should  be  neat  and  attractive 
in  form,  as  well  as  brief  and  to  the  point,  so  that  it  may  be  easily  read. 
Copies  should  be  distributed  among  the  patrons,  and,  together  with 
samples  of  the  milk  advertised,  given  to  the  influential  people  of  the  town. 
The  physicians  should  be  called  upon  and  some  means  devised  for  get- 
ting them  to  visit  the  dairy.  If  they  find  everything  there  in  first-class 
condition,  they  will  not  be  slow  in  recommending  the  milk  to  their 
patients.  The  patrons,  too,  should  be  encouraged  to  visit  the  dajry 
where  it  is  possible  for  them  to  do  so.  Few,  doubtless,  can  be  induced 
to  pay  a  personal  visit,  and  the  great  advantage  of  the  circular  is  that  it 


268 


BULLETIN  No.  92. 


[December, 


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1903.] 


CITY  MILK  SUPPLY 


269 


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270  BULLETIN  No.  92.  [December, 

will  not  only  reach  all  the  patrons,  but  it  will  help  greatly  in  extending 
the  trade. 

As  an  illustration  of  such  a  circular,  one  published  several  years  ago 
showing  the  methods  used  in  the  University  dairy,  is  reprinted  in  con- 
nection with  this  bulletin  as  Circular  No.  73.  Such  a  circular  will  do 
much  to  inform  the  public  where  good,  clean  milk  can  be  obtained,  and 
to  bring  the  well-conducted  dairies  into  the  prominence  they  so  well 
deserve. 

In  all  cities  there  is  great  need  of  this  grade  of  milk,  and  when  its 
production  is  rightly  managed,  there  is  good  opportunity  for  financial 
gain,  as  such  milk  will  sell  for  from  eight  to  twelve  cents  a  quart.  Milk 
of  this  character  has  been  selling  in  Chicago  for  the  past  six  years  for 
twelve  cents  a  quart. 

THE  CONSUMER'S  RESPONSIBILITY. 

That  milk  may  reach  the  table  in  first-class  condition,  the  consumer 
has  responsibilities  as  well  as  the  producer.  The  milkman  is  frequently 
blamed  for  many  things  for  which  he  is  not  responsible.  However  per- 
fect the  condition  and  low  the  temperature  of  the  milk  when  delivered, 
it  cannot  long  remain  in  good  condition  unless  carefully  handled.  If 
milk  is  to  keep,  it  must  be  held  at  a  low  temperature,  at  least  60°  F.,  and 
below  if  possible. 

If  milk  is  not  delivered  in  bottles,  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  it 
from  dust,  and  it  must  be  placed  where  there  are  no  odors  to  be  absorbed. 
Bottled  milk,  being  sealed  with  a  pulp  cap,  cannot  absorb  odors,  and 
should  be  left  in  the  bottle  until  used,  not  emptied  into  an  open  dish. 
If  the  cream  is  to  be  used  first,  that  can  be  poured  off  and  the  cap 
replaced,  thus  protecting  the  milk  left  in  the  bottle.  If  it  is  desired  to 
incorporate  the  cream  with  the  milk,  this  can  easily  be  done  by  turning 
the  bottle  end  over  end  a  few  times,  holding  the  finger  on  the  cap  to 
prevent  its  being  pushed  out.  The  milk  needed  can  then  be  removed 
and  the  cap  replaced. 

IMPROVING  CONDITIONS. 

"Certified"  milk  should  be  the  only  standard,  and  it  points  the 
direction  for  improvement  over  the  common  methods  of  milk  produc- 
tion. Most  of  the  conditions  for  the  production  of  certified  milk  are 
not  expensive.  With  the  majority  of  dairymen,  only  a  few  call  for  the 
outlay  of  additional  money.  The  most  important  conditions,  those 
involving  cleanliness  and  safety,  can  be  secured  without  appreciable 
expense.  Here  improvement  can  begin,  and  should  begin  at  once,  and 
go  forward  as  rapidly  as  possible  until  all  milk  offered  for  direct  con- 
sumption is  produced  according  to  the  standard  for  certified  milk. 


1903.]  CITY  MILK  SUPPLY.  271 

Among  the  reforms  that  can  be  secured  at  insignificant  expense,  and 
which  should  be  universally  insisted  upon,  are  the  following: 

To  keep  the  cows  clean,  and  not  compel  or  allow  them  to  wade  and 
live  in  filth.  This  means  clean  yards  and  clean,  well-bedded  stalls. 
Everything  short  of  this  is  positively  repulsive  and  should  not  be  tolerated 
any  longer  in  a  civilized  community. 

To  stop  the  filthy  practice  known  as  "wetting  the  teats,"  by  which  is 
meant  the  drawing  of  a  little  milk  into  the  hands  with  which  to  wet  the 
teats  before  and  during  milking,  leaving  the  excess  of  filthy  milk  to  drop 
from  the  hands  and  teats  into  the  pail. 

To  wash  all  utensils  clean  by  first  using  lukewarm  water,  afterwards 
washing  in  warm  water,  and  rinsing  in  an  abundance  of  boiling  water, 
then  exposing  until  the  next  using  in  direct  sunlight,  which  is  a  good 
sterilizer. 

To  use  milk  pails,  cans,  etc.,  for  no  other  purpose  but  to  hold  milk. 

To  keep  out  of  these  utensils  all  sour  or  tainted  milk,  even  after  they 
have  been  used  for  the  day.  Using  them  for  this  purpose  at  any  time 
infects  them  so  badly  that  no  amount  of  washing  is  likely  to  clean  them. 
Bacteria  are  invisible,  and  millions  can  find  lodging  place  in  the  thin 
film  of  moisture  that  remains  after  dishes  are  apparently  clean. 

To  brush  down  the  cobwebs  and  keep  the  barn  free  from  accumu- 
lations of  dust  and  trash. 

To  whitewash  the  barn  at  least  once  a  year. 

If  these  changes  can  be  brought  about,  they  will  secure  a  compara- 
tively clean  product,  and  the  improvement  will  amount  almost  to  a 
reformation  in  the  milk  producing  business.  These  changes  involve  but 
insignificant  expense,  either  in  money  or  labor,  and  there  is  no  rational 
reason  why  they  should  not  be  made  without  delay,  voluntarily,  if  pos- 
sible, by  compulsion  if  necessary. 

When  the  dairy  and  surroundings  are  in  the  best  shape  possible  for 
the  present,  a  statement  should  be  made  as  to  the  conditions  under 
which  the  milk  is  produced,  not  claiming  more  than  is  actually  carried 
out  each  day.  By  gradually  raising  his  standard  the  industrious  dairy- 
man may,  in  time,  work  up  to  the  grade  known  as  certified  milk. 

Improving  city  milk  supply  is  a  matter  of  educating  the  public  to 
demand  better  milk,  and  when  the  advantages  of  high  grade  milk  are 
fully  appreciated,  people  will  be  willing  to  pay  the  extra  cost  of  pro- 
duction. The  consuming  public  and  the  better  class  of  dairymen  are 
alike  interested  in  bringing  about  these  improvements  with  as  little 
delay  as  possible. 


272  BULLETIN  No.  92.  [December,  1903. 


NEED  OF  INSPECTION. 

There  are,  and  doubtless  always  will  be,  certain  men  producing  milk 
who,  from  the  slovenly  methods  they  practice,  are  a  disgrace  to  the  dairy 
business.  Such  laws  should  be  enacted,  and  such  a  system  of  inspection 
instituted,  as  will  compel  these  men  to  be  decent  in  their  practices  in 
handling  milk  or  quit  the  business.  It  is  time  the  dairymen  moved  in 
this  matter  and  asked  for  inspection.  If  they  do  not,  the  public  will 
soon  do  so,  and  when  such  matters  are  taken  in  hand  by  those  who  do 
not  have  the  necessary  technical  information  on  the  subject,  the  busi- 
ness may  be  injured  and  injustice  done  to  honest  dairymen  who  are 
putting  out  a  good  grade  of  milk. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


